Saturday, November 11, 2006

Mennonitika Selayang Pandang (2)

MENNONITIKA SELAYANG PANDANG (II)

Teologi Para Reformator dan Kaum Anabaptis



I. PENDAHULUAN

A. Kita harus selalu ingat, gerakan Anabaptis muncul dalam era Reformasi. Sebab itu, adanya gerakan Anabaptis juga banyak didorong oleh gerakan Reformasi yang mendahuluinya. Gerakan Anabaptis memilih untuk bertindak lebih jauh daripada yang dilakukan oleh para reformator, dengan keyakinan bahwa pembaruan gereja harus dilakukan dengan kepatuhan total dan radikal kepada Kristus.

B. Kontribusi gerakan Anabaptis cukup signifikan dalam masa reformasi, yaitu menyentakkan gereja Tuhan bahwa gereja hendaknya tidak berkompromi dengan dunia. Gereja harus terpisah dari pemerintah sekular. Dalam pada itu, gerakan Anabaptis juga berterima kasih kepada Reformasi, sebab bila tidak ada Reformasi maka hingga saat ini kaum Anabaptis bisa jadi dianggap sebagai bidat. Jadi ada hubungan timbal balik di sini, bahwa dengan adanya reformasi, gerakan Anabaptis diterima sebagai salah satu gerakan pembaruan gereja.

C. Di satu sisi, kita melihat adanya keterhubungan teologi Anabaptis dengan teologi para reformator, khususnya dalam pokok-pokok keyakinan ekumenis: Trinitas, keilahian Kristus, otoritas Alkitab, keilahian Roh Kudus, kelahiran baru. Anabaptisme juga menerima pembenaran oleh iman. Namun demikian, kita pun menyadari bahwa di antara kedua kelompok ini terdapat perbedaan yang sangat menyolok, bahkan hingga sekarang perbedaan ini masih dapat diamati.

D. Lalu bagaimana menyikapi perbedaan tersebut? Patut dipahami, setiap orang bertanggung jawab dengan penyelidikan Alkitab secara pribadi dan komunal mengenai apa dia pikir diajarkan Alkitab atas doktrin-doktrin sekuder (bukan primer seperti di poin C), dan kemudian menilik kesimpulan-kesimpulan tersebut dengan berbagai macam ajaran yang ada di sepanjang sejarah gereja. Prinsip hermenutik yang perlu dipegang adalah: Kristosentris, historis, kanonis dan katolik.


II. PERBANDINGAN POSISI DOKTRINAL LUTHER, ZWINGLI, CALVIN DAN KAUM ANABAPTIS

A. Alkitab. Semua reformator di atas dan kaum Anabaptis percaya bahwa Alkitab adalah Firman Allah yang diilhamkan oleh Roh Kudus dan dituliskan untuk menjadi patokan dasar ajaran gereja. Tidak ada masalah pada ajaran mengenai pengilhaman dan otoritas. Namun Luther mempunyai ganjalan terhadap jumlah kanon. Luther membuat doktrin pembenaran oleh iman sebagai kriteria kanonisitas.

He thus placed the material or subjective principle of Protestanism above the formal or objective principle, the truth above the witness of the truth, the doctrine of the gospel above the written Gospel, Christ above the Bible. But we must remember that Luther first learnt Christ from the Bible, especially from the epistle of Paul, which furnished him the key for the understanding of the scheme of salvation (Schaff, History of the Christian Church)

Luther membedakan antara kitab-kitab PB yang lebih penting dan yang kurang penting. Ia menyebut Surat Yakobus, Yudas dan Wahyu di akhir Alkitab Jerman. Ketidaksenangannya dengan Surat Yakobus yakni oleh sebab ia tidak dapat menyelaraskan ajaran di dalamnya dengan ajaran Paulus mengenai pembenaran oleh iman dan bukan perbuatan, dan berkata lebih jauh lagi bahwa surat ini sebagai “surat jerami” bila dibandingkan dengan tulisan-tulisan para rasul yang sejati.

Zwingli hanya sangsi dengan Kitab Wahyu, dan tidak menggunakannya sebagai pedoman ajaran sebab ia tidak merasa bahwa kitab ini ditulis oleh rasul Yohanes. Calvin menerima kitab dalam PL dan PB, tetapi tidak pernah berusaha menulis suatu tafsiran Kitab Wahyu.

Semua Pengakuan Iman Reformed menerima ke-66 kitab dalam Alkitab Protestan modern, tetapi menolak kitab-kitab apokrif PL yang diterima oleh Katolik Roma.

Sedangkan kaum Anabaptis tidak terlalu mempermasalahkan kanonisasi Alkitab. Mereka sangat bertumpu kepada Khotbah Tuhan Yesus di atas Bukit sebagai pola kehidupan murid-murid Kristus. Bagi kaum Anabaptis, Khotbah di Bukit adalah ajaran yang harus dipatuhi karena langsung disampaikan oleh Sang Guru Agung sendiri.

B. Kedaulatan Allah. Para reformator adalah kaum Augustinian dalam konsepsi mereka mengenai dosa dan keselamatan. Mereka menekankan kepada kerusakan total manusia, pemilihan tak bersyarat dan predestinasi yang menyelamatkan.

We condemn man’s free will, his strength, his wisdom, and all religion of man’s own devising; in short we say that there is nothing in us able to deserve grace (Martin Luther).

This mightily offends our rational nature that God should, of His own mere unbiased will, leave some men to themselves, harden them and condemn them; but He gives abundant demonstration, and does continually, that this is really the case; namely, that the sole cause why some are saved, and others perish, proceeds fromHis willing the salvation of the former, and the perdition of the latter, according to that of saint Paul, “He hath mercy on whom He will have mercy, and whom He will harden” (Martin Luther).

Predestination we call the decree of God, by which He has determined in Himself, what He would have to become of every individual of mankind. For they are not all created with a similar destiny: but eternal life is foreordained for some, and eternal damnation for others. Every man, therefore, being created for one or the other of these ends, we say, he is predestined either to life or to death (Yohanes Calvin).

The rest of mankind, God was pleased, according to the unsearchable counsel of His will, whereby He extendeth or witholdeth mercy as He pleaseth, for the glory of His sovereign pover over His creatures, to pass by, and to ordain them to dishonour and wrath for their sin, to the praise of His glorious justice (Westminster Confession of Faith).

Kaum Anabaptis sebulat hati menerima teologi kehendak bebas. Mereka tidak menekankan atau bahkan tidak mengajarkan doktrin-doktrin pemilihan dan predestinasi. Kemungkinan besar, gaya hidup yang bebas dari orang-orang Reformed membuat mereka membanting setir kepada pandangan mengenai kehendak bebas.

C. Salib. Semua reformator juga kaum Anabaptis menerima bahwa Kristus merupakan substitusi bagi dosa semua orang yang percaya kepada-Nya untuk keselamatan mereka. Mereka percaya bahwa seseorang dibenarkan oleh anugerah melalui iman di dalam Kristus, dan tidak ada keselamatan di luar kematian dan kebangkitan Kristus. Kedua pihak tidak bersepakat mengenai jangkauan pendamaian tersebut, dan kaum Anabaptis mempercayai penebusan universal, sementara para reformator meyakini penebusan terbatas.

D. Jaminan Keselamatan. Para reformator bereaksi kepada doktrin Katolik Roma bahwa perbuatan baik dapat mengerjakan keselamatan, sehingga membuat seseorang bertanya-tanya apakah perbuatan baiknya sudah sukup untuk sampai ke surga. Para reformator menekankan aspek-aspek keselamatan yang objektif, posisional dan forensik. Bagi Luther, jaminan menjadi inti iman. Pengakuan Iman Augsburg mengatakan bahwa seseorang “is freely justified for Christ’s sake, through faith, when they believe that there are received into favor, and that their sins are forgiven for Christ’s sake” (pasal 4). Calvin meruntut jaminan tersebut sampai kepada ketetapan (dekrit) Allah. Calvin juga memandang jaminan sebagai inti iman, dan meragukan orang-orang yang mengklaim Kristus sementara tidak yakin bahwa ia berada di dalam Kristus.

Wherever this living faith is found, it must necessarily be accompanied by the hope of eternal salvation; for if we have not this hope, however eloquently we may discourse of faith, it is evident that we have none. The opinion consequently stands, that no one can be called a son of God who does not know himself to be such.

Maka, kita menemukan bahwa para reformator menghubungkan jaminan keselamatan dengan iman yang menyelamatkan, dan bila kita kehilangan kepastian tersebut, hal itu menandakan kemungkinan tidak adanya iman yang menyelamatkan.

Kaum Anabaptis akan menolak konsep bahwa seseorang dapat memiliki jaminan keselamatan seperti yang diyakini para reformator, sebab kaum Anabaptis menolak doktrin pemilihan anugerah.

E. Baptisan. Para reformator mempraktikkan baptisan bayi, dan percik adalah modus baptisan. Calvin dan Luther keduanya menyatakan keyakinan bahwa seorang dewasa sepatutnya dibaptiskan dengan diselam, sementara Zwingli pada suatu waktu mendorong baptis selam. Kaum Anabaptis meyakini keniscayaan baptisan, dan mereka berpikir bahwa baptisan bayi sekadar temuan manusia. Kaum Anabaptis mula-mula tidak mempermasalahkan cara baptisan, sebab mereka pun melakukan baptis dengan percik atau tuang. Sampai bertahun-tahun kemudian mereka menerima juga baptis selam.

F. Perjamuan Tuhan. Luther mempercayai konstubstansiasi, yaitu bahwa Kristus turut hadir dalam elemen perjamuan (di dalam, di bawah dan di atas), tetapi tidak ada mukjizat yang terjadi roti dan anggur berubah menjadi tubuh dan darah Kristus (seperti yang diyakini oleh doktrin transubstansiasi di gereja Katolik Roma). Zwingli percaya bahwa perjamuan Tuhan adalah sebuah memorial, dan bahwa elemen perjamuan hanyalah simbol penderitaan Kristus. Ia mengatakan bahwa Kristus sama sekali tidak hadir di dalam elemen perjamuan, sebab Kristus ada di surga. Namun ia masih percaya bahwa Kristus sungguh-sungguh nyata dalam iman orang percaya tatkala mengambil bagian dalam perjamuan. Calvin mengambil posisi tengah antara Luther dan Zwingli, dan ia percaya bahwa meskipun Kristus tidak sungguh-sungguh hadir dalam elemen, namun demikian Ia sungguh-sungguh hadir dalam kuasa Roh Kudus, dan bahwa anugerah dicurahkan kepada orang percaya melalui elemen perjamuan. Kaum Anabaptis memilih posisi Zwingli, bahwa perjamuan merupakan kenangan terhadap derita dan sengsara Kristus.

G. Pemerintahan Gereja. Secara keseluruhan, Reformasi condong kepada bentuk pemerintahan presbiterial (dipimpin oleh penatua atau sesi atau konsistori). Kaum Anabaptis memilih bentuk pemerintahan konggregasional dan gereja bebas.

H. Gereja dan Negara. Luther dan Zwingli percaya bahwa negara harus mempunyai kuasa atas urusan-urusan gerejawi, sebab negara ada untuk melindungi gereja dari musuh-musuh politis dan religius. Calvin percaya bahwa gereja dan negara harus terpisah, tetapi memandang penting bahwa negara harus mendengarkan gereja atas masalah-masalah moral. Kaum Anabaptis sangat radikal dan mengemukakan pemisahan total gereja dan negara. Hal ini diikuti dengan keekstreman bahwa mereka memilih cara hidup pasifis, juga dengan menolak sumpah, menjadi bagian militer, dan untuk mengurusi hal-hal politik sekular.

I. Kemurnian Gereja. Para reformator percaya bahwa gereja yang kelihatan, yaitu gereja lokal beranggotakan umat Allah yang sejati dengan yang bukan, dan hal ini tidak dapat dipungkiri. Alasannya, banyak orang yang beralih dari Katolik Roma ke Prostestan tanpa benar-benar menunjukkan spiritualitas yang benar. Kaum Anabaptis percaya bahwa gereja sejati beranggotakan orang-orang Kristen yang sungguh-sungguh tahu apa artinya diselamatkan. Mereka menerima bahwa beberapa anggota gereja yang kelihatan bisa saja terhilang (murtad), tetapi adalah tugas gereja untuk menjaga anggota-anggotanya semurni-murninya. Kaum Anabaptis juga tidak menekankan perihal gereja yang tidak kelihatan.

J. Milenialisme. Semua reformator adalah amilenialis (tidak ada Kerajaan Seribu Tahun secara harfiah) dalam teologi mereka. Hal ini merupakan warisan dari Gereja Katolik Roma yang telah menekankan teologi amilenial untuk istilah “seribu tahun” di dalam Kitab Wahyu. Para reformator percaya juga Kristus akan datang kembali, dan akan ada penghakiman atas orang-orang fasik dan upah bagi orang benar. Namun, mereka tidak percaya pemerintahan Kristus harfiah selama “seribu tahun.” Isu yang ditekankan para reformator adalah soteriologi (doktrin keselamatan) dan bukan eskatologi (doktrin akhir zaman). Sementara itu, kaum Anabaptis percaya akan adanya pemerintahan Kristus secara kasat mata, di atas bumi, dan hal ini terus merupakan kesenjangan dengan ajaran para reformator kala itu.

K. Ritual. Luther dan Zwingli percaya bahwa apa pun yang tidak dilarang oleh Alkitab boleh dilakukan untuk menjadi pranata gereja. Mereka mempertahankan altar, lilin serta pernik-pernik hiasan gereja. Calvin menekankan hanya yang secara terang-terangan dinyatakan di dalam Alkitab yang boleh dipakai dalam ibadah. Kaum Anabaptis bergerak lebih maju, mereka ingin meniadakan semua kemapanan di dalam Gereja Katolik Roma dan membangun sebuah gereja baru berdasarkan prinsip-prinsip PB.

L. Kebebasan Religius. Para reformator tidak menoleransi pihak-pihak yang tidak sependapat dengan mereka. Setelah melepaskan diri dari ikatan kepausan gereja Katolik, mereka kembali bertindak menurut prinsip yang sama yaitu menganiaya sesamanya, sama seperti yang dilakukan oleh Gereja Katolik Roma. Hal ini dapat dimaklumi, mereka bertumbuh dewasa dari latar belakang seperti itu. mereka tidak memiliki konsep toleransi atau kebebasan seperti halnya yang kita miliki sekarang. Mereka memperjuangkan kebebasan di dalam Kristus, bukan dari Kristus. Mereka pun memperjuangkan kebebasan untuk berkhotbah dan mengajarkan Injil, bukan untuk melawan ataupun mencemarinya. Mereka merasa hal untuk melawan dan menghukum kaum bidat (penyesat) merupakan kewajiban kepada Allah dan kepada diri mereka sendiri.

Religious persecution arises not only from bigotry and fanaticism, and the base passion of malice, hatred and uncharitableness, but also from the mistaken zeal for truth and orthodoxy, from the intensity of religious conviction, and from the alliance of religion with politics or the union of church and state, whereby an offence against the one becomes an offence against the other (Schaff).

Dalam hal toleransi religius dan hak-hak manusia, kaum Anabaptis selangkah lebih maju pada zaman itu. Mereka membebaskan setiap orang untuk mengungkapkan religinya, meskipun mereka tidak dapat sepakat manakah Injil Kristus yang sejati. Jejak yang ditinggalkan oleh toleransi ini adalah keberagaman keyakinan di dalam tubuh Anabaptisme. Sangat sulit meretas satu bentuk Anabaptisme yang murni. Mungkin bolehlah dikatakan, Anabaptisme merupakan cikal bakal pascamodernisme di era pramodern.

TERPUJILAH ALLAH!


(leNin_Nov0706)

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